Tag Archives: ConservationArt

Serbu, J. A., St. Louis, V. L., Emmerton, C. A., Tank S., Criscitello, A., Silins, U., Bhatia, M., Cavaco, M., Christenson, C., Cooke, C., Drapeau, H., Enns, S. J., Flett, J., Holland, K., Lavelle-Whiffen, J., Ma, M., Muir, C., Poesch, M. S., and J. Shin. (2023). A comprehensive biogeochemical assessment of climate-threatened glacial river headwaters on the eastern slopes of the Canadian Rocky Mountains. JGR Biogeosciences 129: e2023JG007745. 

Abstract:

Climate change is driving the loss of alpine glaciers globally, yet investigations about the health of rivers stemming from them are few. Here we provide an overview assessment of a biogeochemical dataset containing 200+ parameters that we collected between 2019-2021 from the headwaters of three such rivers (Sunwapta-Athabasca, North Saskatchewan, and Bow) which originate from the glacierized eastern slopes of the Canadian Rocky Mountains. We used regional hydrometric datasets to accurately model discharge at our sampling sites. We created a Local Meteoric Water Line (LMWL) using riverine water isotope signatures and compared it to regional rain, snow, and glacial ice signatures we also collected. Principal component analyses of river physicochemical measures revealed distance from glacier explained more data variability than the spatiotemporal factors season, year, or river. Discharge, chemical concentrations, and watershed areas were then used to model site-specific open water season yields for 25 parameters. Chemical yields followed what would generally be expected along river continuums from glacierized to montane altitudinal life zones, with landscape characteristics acting as chemical sources and sinks. For instance, particulate chemical yields were generally highest near source glaciers with proglacial lakes acting as settling ponds, whereas most dissolved yields varied by parameter and site. As these headwaters continue to evolve with glacier mass loss, the dataset and analyses presented here can be used as a contemporary baseline to mark future change against. Further, following this initial assessment of our dataset, we encourage others to mine it for additional biogeochemical studies.

Citation: Serbu, J. A., St. Louis, V. L., Emmerton, C. A., Tank S., Criscitello, A., Silins, U., Bhatia, M., Cavaco, M., Christenson, C., Cooke, C., Drapeau, H., Enns, S. J., Flett, J., Holland, K., Lavelle-Whiffen, J., Ma, M., Muir, C., Poesch, M. S., and J. Shin. (2023). A comprehensive biogeochemical assessment of climate-threatened glacial river headwaters on the eastern slopes of the Canadian Rocky Mountains. JGR Biogeosciences 129: e2023JG007745. 

Also Read:

Theis, S.*  Castellanos D.A., Hamann A. and M.S. Poesch. (2023) Small-bodied fish species from western United States will be under severe water stress by 2040. Conservation Science and Practice: e12856.

*Lab members: Mark Poesch. Check out opportunities in the lab!

McPherson, M.*, Lewis, J.B., Cott, P.B., Baker, L.F., Mochnacz, N.J. Swanson, H.K., and S. Poesch. (2023) Habitat use by fluvial Arctic Grayling (Thymallus arcticus) across life stages in northern mountain streams. Environmental Biology of Fishes 106: 1001-1020.

Abstract:

Northern aquatic ecosystems face increasing pressures from climate change and natural resource development.  The Arctic Grayling (Thymallus arcticus) is a widely distributed, northern freshwater fish which can be vulnerable to such pressures. There remains a paucity of information on life stage requirements through most of the species’ range to reliably map and manage habitat to protect populations into the future. We sought to characterize fluvial Arctic Grayling distribution among mountain streams and determine habitat characteristics that habitat use across life stages. Sampling was conducted at 183 sites across the Little Nahanni River watershed to collect information on fish distribution and reach-scale habitat parameters. Arctic Grayling were collected for biological analyses of age, size, weight, and reproductive development. Based on age and size-classes there were four distinct post-emergence life stages: YOY, juvenile, sub-adult and adult. YOY Arctic Grayling were found exclusively in low elevation (<1000 m) streams, flat-water habitat dominated by silty-sand substrate with average water temperatures >10oC. Similarly, juvenile Arctic Grayling occupied low elevation, warm water stream habitat, but associated strongly with run habitats. Sub-adult Arctic Grayling, the most widely distributed life-stage, were found associated with riffle, pool, and cascade-boulder habitats. Adults occupied high elevation (>1200 m) habitats that were cold (mean stream temperature = 7oC), and had higher proportions of pool and boulder habitat. The dynamic nature of Arctic Grayling habitat use in mountain streams highlights the need to consider habitat complexes at the watershed scale when defining species life stage requirements, managing habitats, monitoring populations, and assessing potential impacts. Keywords: Climate Change; Water Stress; Biodiversity; Preservation.

Citation: McPherson, M., Lewis, J.B., Cott, P.B., Baker, L.F., Mochnacz, N.J. Swanson, H.K., and S. Poesch. (2023) Habitat use by fluvial Arctic Grayling (Thymallus arcticus) across life stages in northern mountain streams. Environmental Biology of Fishes 106: 1001-1020. 

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Pandit, S.N.*, Koriala, L., Maitland, B.M*, Poesch, M.S., and E. Enders. (2017) Climate change risks, extinction debt, and conservation implications for an endangered freshwater fish Carmine Shiner (Notropis percobromus). Science of the Total Environment 598: 1-11.

*Lab members: Morag McPherson and Mark Poesch. Check out opportunities in the lab!

Medinski, N.A.*, Maitland, B.M.*, Jardine, T.D., Drake, D.A.R. and M.S. Poesch (2022) A catastrophic coal mine spill in the Athabasca River watershed induces isotopic niche shifts in stream biota including an endangered rainbow trout ecotype. Canadian Journal for Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 79(8): 1321-1334.

Abstract:

Freshwater biodiversity is declining from impacts associated with anthropogenic stressors. Here, we use carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N) stable isotopes to assess food web effects following a coal mine spill that displaced biota and altered biophysical stream characteristics. We compared isotopic niche metrics of benthic macroinvertebrates and the fish community, including non-native brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) and endangered Athabasca rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), to infer spatial differences in site-specific resource use along a habitat disturbance gradient. Predatory benthic macroinvertebrate trophic position was elevated where impacts from the spill were most pronounced. Autochthonous carbon contribution to consumer diets was lowest in biota sampled at the most highly impacted site from the mine spill, leading to an unexpected expansion of the isotopic niche size of rainbow trout and the aquatic invertebrate community. Collectively, our results suggest spatial variation in trophic resource assimilation across multiple levels of the food web, fuelled by the allochthonous energy pathway in highly impacted study sites. We conclude this reflects a biotic response to altered basal aquatic resources following a major industrial disturbance.

Citation: Medinski, N.A., Maitland, B.M., Jardine, T.D., Drake, D.A.R. and M.S. Poesch (2022) A catastrophic coal mine spill in the Athabasca River watershed induces isotopic niche shifts in stream biota including an endangered rainbow trout ecotype. Canadian Journal for Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 79(8): 1321-1334.

Also Read:

Nelson-Chorney, H.*, Carli, C.M., Davis, C.S., Vinebrooke, R.D., Poesch, M.S., and M.K. Taylor (2019) Environmental DNA in lake sediment reveals biogeography of native genetic diversity. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution 17: 313-318.

*Lab members: Nathan Medinski, Bryan Maitland, Mark Poesch. Check out opportunities in the lab!

Roberts, K.N.*, Lund, T.*, Hayden, B. and M.S. Poesch (2022) Season and species influence stable isotope ratios between lethally and non-lethally sampled tissues in freshwater fish. Journal of Fish Biology 100 (1): 229-241.

Abstract:

The field of stable isotope ecology is moving away from lethal sampling (internal organs and muscle) towards non-lethal sampling (fins, scales and epidermal mucus). Lethally and non-lethally sampled tissues often differ in their stable isotope ratios due to differences in metabolic turnover rate and isotopic routing. If not accounted for when using non-lethal tissues, these differences may result in inaccurate estimates of resource use and trophic position derived from stable isotopes. To address this, the authors tested whether tissue type, season and their interaction influence the carbon and nitrogen stable isotope ratios of fishes and whether estimates of species trophic position and resource use are affected by tissue type, season and their interaction. This study developed linear conversion relationships between two fin types and dorsal muscle, accounting for seasonal variation. The authors focused on three common temperate freshwater fishes: northern pike Esox lucius, yellow perch Perca flavescens and lake whitefish Coregonus clupeaformis. They found that fins were enriched in 13C and depleted in 15N compared to muscle in all three species, but the effect of season and the interaction between tissue type and season were species and isotope dependent. The estimates of littoral resource use based on fin isotope ratios were between 13% and 36% greater than those based on muscle across species. Season affected this difference for some species, suggesting the potential importance of using season-specific conversions when working with non-lethal tissues. Fin and muscle stable isotopes produced similar estimates of trophic position for northern pike and yellow perch, but fin-based estimates were 0.2–0.4 trophic positions higher than muscle-based estimates for lake whitefish. The effect of season was negligible for estimates of trophic position in all species. Strong correlations existed between fin and muscle δ13C and δ15N values for all three species; thus, linear conversion relationships were developed. The results of this study support the use of non-lethal sampling in stable isotope studies of fishes. The authors suggest that researchers use tissue conversion relationships and account for seasonal variation in these relationships when differences between non-lethal tissues and muscle,
and seasonal effects on those differences, are large relative to the scale of isotope values under investigation and/or the trophic discrimination factors under use.

Citation: Roberts, K.N., Lund, T., Hayden, B. and M.S. Poesch (2022) Season and species influence stable isotope ratios between lethally and non-lethally sampled tissues in freshwater fish. Journal of Fish Biology 100 (1): 229-241. DOI: 10.1111/jfb.14939

Finalist for FSBI Huntingford Medal. Note: One of two papers that received the “Highly Commended” designation.

Also Read:

Finn, K.*, Roberts, K.N.* and M.S. Poesch (2022) Cestode parasites are depleted in 15N relative to their fish hosts in northern Alberta, Canada. Fisheries Research 248: 106193..

*Lab members: Karling Roberts, Mark Poesch. Check out opportunities in the lab!

Finn, K.*, Roberts, K.N.* and M.S. Poesch (2022) Cestode parasites are depleted in 15N relative to their fish hosts in northern Alberta, Canada. Fisheries Research 248: 106193..

Abstract:

The use of stable isotopes to study trophic interactions and food webs has become a common practice in ecology. Until recently, parasites were largely omitted from these analyses despite their known contribution to ecosystem complexity and function. Long-standing assumptions about the enrichment of δ15N in consumers relative to their resources occasionally placed parasites in trophic positions above their hosts. However, recent literature has shown that unlike consumers to prey, parasites do not reliably exhibit enrichment in δ15N. This is particularly true of helminth endoparasites in the class cestoda, which tend to be depleted in δ15N. We developed empirical estimates of nitrogen and carbon stable isotope ratios from a cestode parasite (Ligula intestinalis) across four fish hosts from two lakes in northern Alberta, Canada. We found that L. intestinalis were depleted in δ15N relative to their hosts across all host fish species, with mean nitrogen discrimination factors (Δ15N) ranging from -1.92 ± 0.24 ‰ to -2.91 ± 1.17 ‰. In contrast, δ 13C values did not differ significantly in any direction between hosts and their parasites. Mean carbon discrimination factors (Δ13C) ranged from -0.66 ± 2.69 ‰ to 0.04 ± 1.53 ‰. We also tested for relationships between proportional parasite biomass and discrimination factor (Δ15N & Δ13C), and found high variability in strength and direction of these correlations across species. The direction and magnitude of nitrogen discrimination we found for L. intestinalis is similar to that of previous cestode stable isotope studies and may indicate consistency across the class cestoda. However, class cestoda is incredibly diverse and relatively few studies have examined host-parasite
discrimination factors within the clade. We encourage additional research into host-parasite discrimination factors for the class cestoda, and across all parasite taxa. This could facilitate the inclusion of these widespread interactions into food web studies, thus improving our knowledge of trophic structure and dynamics.

Citation: Finn, K., Roberts, K.N. and M.S. Poesch (2022) Cestode parasites are depleted in 15N relative to their fish hosts in northern Alberta, Canada. Fisheries Research 248: 106193.

Also Read:

Medinski, N.A.*, Maitland, B.M.*, Jardine, T.D., Drake, D.A.R. and M.S. Poesch (2022) A catastrophic coal mine spill in the Athabasca River watershed induces isotopic niche shifts in stream biota including an endangered rainbow trout ecotype. Canadian Journal for Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 79(8): 1321-1334.

*Lab members: Karling Roberts, Mark Poesch. Check out opportunities in the lab!

Pereyra, P.E.R, Hallwas, G., Poesch, M.S. and R. Silvano (2021) ‘Taking fishers’ knowledge to the lab’: an interdisciplinary approach to understand fish trophic relationships in the Brazilian Amazon. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution.

Abstract:

Trophic levels can be applied to describe the ecological role of organisms in food webs and assess changes in ecosystems. Stable isotopes analysis can assist in the understanding of trophic interactions and use of food resources by aquatic organisms. The local ecological knowledge (LEK) of fishers can be an alternative to advance understanding about fish trophic interactions and to construct aquatic food webs, especially in regions lacking research capacity. The objectives of this study are: to calculate the trophic levels of six fish species important to fishing by combining data from stable isotopes analysis and fishers’ LEK in two clear water rivers (Tapajós and Tocantins) in the Brazilian Amazon; to compare the trophic levels of these fish between the two methods (stable isotopes analysis and LEK) and the two rivers; and to develop diagrams representing the trophic webs of the main fish prey and predators based on fisher’s LEK. The fish species studied were Pescada (Plagioscion squamosissimus), Tucunaré (Cichla pinima), Piranha (Serrasalmus rhombeus), Aracu (Leporinus fasciatus), Charuto (Hemiodus unimaculatus) and Jaraqui (Semaprochilodus spp.). A total of 98 interviews and 63 samples for stable isotopes analysis were carried out in both rivers. The average fish trophic levels did not differ between the stable isotopes analysis and the LEK in the Tapajós, nor in the Tocantins Rivers. The overall trophic level of the studied fish species obtained through the LEK did not differ from data obtained through the stable isotopes analysis in both rivers, except for the Aracu in the Tapajós River. The main food items consumed by the fish according to fishers’ LEK did agree with fish diets as described in the biological literature. Fishers provided useful information on fish predators and feeding habits of endangered species, such as river dolphin and river otter. Collaboration with fishers through LEK studies can be a viable approach to produce reliable data on fish trophic ecology to improve fisheries management and species conservation in tropical freshwater environments and other regions with data limitations.

Also Read:

Dutra, M.C.F., Pereyra, P.E.R., Hallwass, G., Poesch, M.S. and R.A.M. Silvano. (2023). Fishers’ knowledge on trophic ecology and of the tropical ‘super fish’ Plagioscion squamosissimus in two Brazilian Amazonian rivers. Neotropical Ichthyology 21(1): e220041.

*Lab members: Mark Poesch. Check out opportunities in the lab!

Castaneda, R.A., Ackerman, J.D., Chapman, L.J., Cooke, S.J., Cuddington, K., Dextrase, A., Jackson, D.A., Koops, M.A., Krkosek, M., Loftus, K., Mandrak, N.E., Martel, A.L., Molnar, P., Morris, T.J., Pitcher, T.E., Poesch, M.S., Power, M., Pratt, T.C., Reid, S.M., Rodriguez, M.A., Rosenfeld, J., Wilson, C., Zanatta, D.T. and D.A.R. Drake. (2021) Approaches and research needs for advancing the protection and recovery of imperilled freshwater fishes and mussels in Canada. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 78 (9): 1356-1370.

Abstract:

Effective conservation requires that species recovery measures are informed by rigorous scientific research. For imperilled freshwater fishes and mussels in Canada, numerous research gaps exist, in part owing to the need for specialized research methods. The Canadian Freshwater Species at Risk Research Network (SARNET) was formed, and identified or implemented approaches to address current research gaps, including: 1) captive experimental research populations; 2) non-lethal methods for estimating abundance and distribution; 3) non-lethal field methods to measure life-history parameters; 4) species distribution models informed by co-occurring species; 5) integration of conservation physiology into habitat and threat science; 6) evidence syntheses to evaluate threats and recovery strategies; 7) disease-transmission models to understand mussel-host relationships; 8) experimental mesocosms and manipulative experiments to evaluate key habitat stressors; 9) threat and hazard models for predictive applications; and, 10) rigorous evaluation of surrogate species. Over a dozen threat and recovery-focused SARNET-research applications are summarized, demonstrating the value of a coordinated research program between academics and government to advance scientific research on, and to support the recovery of, imperilled freshwater species.

Citation: Castaneda, R.A., Ackerman, J.D., Chapman, L.J., Cooke, S.J., Cuddington, K., Dextrase, A., Jackson, D.A., Koops, M.A., Krkosek, M., Loftus, K., Mandrak, N.E., Martel, A.L., Molnar, P., Morris, T.J., Pitcher, T.E., Poesch, M.S., Power, M., Pratt, T.C., Reid, S.M., Rodriguez, M.A., Rosenfeld, J., Wilson, C., Zanatta, D.T. and D.A.R. Drake. (2021) Approaches and research needs for advancing the protection and recovery of imperilled freshwater fishes and mussels in Canada. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 78 (9): 1356-1370.

Also Read:

Theis, S.*  Castellanos D.A., Hamann A. and M.S. Poesch. (2023) Small-bodied fish species from western United States will be under severe water stress by 2040. Conservation Science and Practice: e12856.

*Lab members: Mark Poesch. Check out opportunities in the lab!

Nelson-Chorney, H.*, Carli, C.M., Davis, C.S., Vinebrooke, R.D., Poesch, M.S., and M.K. Taylor (2019) Environmental DNA in lake sediment reveals biogeography of native genetic diversity. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution 17: 313-318.

Abstract: 

Understanding the historical distributions of species is vital to the conservation and restoration of native species, yet such information is often qualitative. We show that the paleolimnological history of threatened freshwater fishes can be reconstructed using species‐diagnostic markers amplified from environmental DNA deposited in lake sediments (lake sedDNA). This method was validated through the detection of lake sedDNA from non‐native trout (Yellowstone cutthroat trout, Oncorhynchus clarkii bouvieri), which corroborated historical records of human‐mediated introductions. We also discovered native trout (westslope cutthroat trout, Oncorhynchus clarkii lewisi) lake sedDNA that predated human‐mediated introductions of freshwater fishes in a watershed with high topographical relief. This unexpected result revealed that the westslope population was of native origin and requires immediate conservation protection. Our findings demonstrate that lake sedDNA can be used to determine the colonization history of freshwater fishes and the structure of ecosystems, aiding in the identification of native ranges, novel native diversity, and introductions of non‐native species. 

Citation: Nelson-Chorney, H., Carli, C.M., Davis, C.S., Vinebrooke, R.D., Poesch, M.S., and M.K. Taylor (2019) Environmental DNA in lake sediment reveals biogeography of native genetic diversity. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution 17: 313-318.

Also Read: 

Poesch, M.S., Chavarie, L., Chu, C., Pandit, S.N.*, and W. Tonn. (2016) Climate change impacts on freshwater fishes: A Canadian perspective. Fisheries 41(7): 385-391.

*Lab members:   Hedin Nelson-Chorney, Mark Poesch. Check out opportunities in the lab!

Lamothe,K.A., Drake, D.A.R., Pitcher, T.E., Broome, J.E., Dextrase, A.J., Gillespie, A., Mandrak, N.E., Poesch, M.S., Reid, S.M. and N. Vachon. (2019) Reintroduction of fishes in Canada: a review of research progress for SARA-listed species. Environmental Reviews 27(4): 575-599.

Abstract:

Fishes are among the most threatened taxa in Canada with over 70 species, subspecies, and/or Designatable Units presently listed for protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA). Protecting these species requires a diverse set of strategies based on the best-available data and information. One strategy identified in Canadian federal recovery strategies for improving the status of SARA-listed fishes is species reintroduction, which involves the release of individuals into areas from which they have been extirpated with the goal of re-establishing self-sustaining populations. The success of reintroduction relies on a comprehensive understanding of species life history and ecology, with considerations around population genetics and genomics. However, SARA-listed species are some of the most poorly known species in Canada due to their rarity and relative lack of research investment prior to the enactment of SARA. As a result, SARA-listed species have the most to lose if reintroduction activities are not carefully researched, planned, and executed. Therefore, the purpose of this review is to present an accessible summary on the state of reintroduction science for SARA-listed fishes in Canada with the hope of motivating future research to support reintroduction activities. We focus our review on 14 SARA-listed freshwater or anadromous fishes identified as candidates for reintroduction in federal recovery strategies. We follow our species-specific summaries with guidance on how basic research questions in population ecology, habitat science, and threat science provide a critical foundation for addressing knowledge gaps in reintroduction science. Subsequently, we identify the importance of genetic and genomic techniques for informing future research on the reintroduction of SARA-listed species. We conclude with recommendations for active, experimental approaches for moving reintroduction efforts forward for recovering Canadian fishes.

Voted as Editor’s Choice for 2019!

Citation: Lamothe,K.A., Drake, D.A.R., Pitcher, T.E., Broome, J.E., Dextrase, A.J., Gillespie, A., Mandrak, N.E., Poesch, M.S., Reid, S.M. and N. Vachon. (2019) Reintroduction of fishes in Canada: a review of research progress for SARA-listed species. Environmental Reviews 27(4): 575-599.

Also Read:

Castaneda, R.A., Ackerman, J.D., Chapman, L.J., Cooke, S.J., Cuddington, K., Dextrase, A., Jackson, D.A., Koops, M.A., Krkosek, M., Loftus, K., Mandrak, N.E., Martel, A.L., Molnar, P., Morris, T.J., Pitcher, T.E., Poesch, M.S., Power, M., Pratt, T.C., Reid, S.M., Rodriguez, M.A., Rosenfeld, J., Wilson, C., Zanatta, D.T. and D.A.R. Drake. (2021) Approaches and research needs for advancing the protection and recovery of imperilled freshwater fishes and mussels in Canada. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 78 (9): 1356-1370.

Rudolfsen, T.*, Ruppert, J.W.R.*, Davis, C., Taylor, R., Watkinson, D. and M.S. Poesch (2019) Habitat use and hybridization between the Rocky Mountain Sculpin (Cottus sp.) and Slimy Sculpin (Cottus cognatus). Freshwater Biology 64(3): 391-404.

Abstract: 

Anthropogenic factors such as land-use change, pollution and climate change, can cause fragmentation and reduce the amount of habitat by altering preferred conditions. This process can also bring about novel species interactions and, in some cases, create or alter levels of hybridization between closely related species. We assessed the threat of hybridization to persistence of the Rocky Mountain Sculpin (Cottus sp.) and the Slimy Sculpin (Cottus cognatus) in the Flathead River drainage, British Columbia, Canada. Using 731 genetic samples, 10 polymorphic microsatellite loci and mitochondrial cytochrome C oxidase sequences, we assessed: (1) if there are differences in the distribution of Rocky Mountain Sculpin between contemporary and historical (35 years ago) records, (2) if hybridization is symmetrical in terms of sex specific parental contributions, and (3) if habitat preferences contribute to the distribution of pure parental and hybrid populations. We identified three hybrid locations and found that Rocky Mountain Sculpin have a distribution (1200 – 1902 m) that far exceeds the range limit reported 35 years ago (1200 – 1372 m). Additionally, hybrid mating appears to involve similar proportions of parents of both sexes from each species. Lastly, elevation, water conductivity, turbidity, and dissolved oxygen are significant factors predicting the presence of parental species. Only elevation was significant to hybrid presence. The contrasting associations of parental species with different habitat types appears to influence the extent and distribution of hybridization.

Citation: Rudolfsen, T.*, Ruppert, J.W.R.*, Davis, C., Taylor, R., Watkinson, D. and M.S. Poesch (2019) Habitat use and hybridization between the Rocky Mountain Sculpin (Cottus sp.) and Slimy Sculpin (Cottus cognatus). Freshwater Biology 64(3): 391-404.

Also Read:

Ruppert, J.L.W.*, James, P.M.A., Taylor, R., Rudolfsen, T.*, Veillard, M.*, Davis, C., Watkinson, D. and Poesch, M.S. (2017) Riverscape genetic structure of a threatened and dispersal limited freshwater species, the Rocky Mountain Sculpin (Cottus sp.). Conservation Genetics 18: 925-937.

*Lab members:   Tyana Rudolfsen,  Jonathan Ruppert, Mark Poesch. Check out opportunities in the lab!